وبلاگ مقالات کامل روانشناسی مصطفی نجفی

ارائه مشاوره خانوادگي،ازدواج، ومشاوره پايان نامه وتهیه تستهای تخصصی روانشناسی 09191738354

Are all drug addicts impulsive? Effects of antisociality and extent of multidrug use on cognitive and motor impulsivity Jasmin Vassileva a, , , Raul Gonzalez a, Antoine Bechara b\u003c/sup\>\u003c/a\> and Eileen M. Martin\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#aff1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003csup\>a\u003c/sup\>\u003c/a\>\u003csup\>, \u003c/sup\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#aff3\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003csup\>c\u003c/sup\>\u003c/a\> \u003c/p\>\u003c/strong\>\u003cbr\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_aff1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003csup\>a\u003c/sup\>Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois – Chicago, Chicago, IL 60622, USA\u003cbr\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_aff2\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003csup\>b\u003c/sup\>Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA\n\u003cbr\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_aff3\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003csup\>c\u003c/sup\>Jesse Brown Veterans Administration Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60622, USA \u003cbr\>\u003cbr\>Available online 19 April 2007. \u003cbr\>\u003cbr\>\u003cbr\>\u003cbr\>\n\u003cdiv\>\n\u003cp\>\u003cspan\>Abstract\u003c/span\> \n\u003cp\>The purpose of this investigation was to examine the influence of antisociality and extent of multidrug use on cognitive and motor impulsivity among substance-dependent individuals (SDIs) that used primarily cocaine and/or heroin. One hundred currently abstinent male SDIs participated in the study. Extent of multidrug use and degree of antisociality, assessed with the Socialization Scale of the California Psychological Inventory (So-CPI), were used to classify participants into one of four groups: high antisocial/low multidrug use, high antisocial/high multidrug use, low antisocial/low multidrug use, and low antisocial/high multidrug use. All subjects completed the Iowa Gambling Task to assess cognitive impulsivity and the Stroop Task to measure motor impulsivity. Contrary to expectations, antisociality was associated with more advantageous performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, independent of extent of multidrug use. In contrast, greater multidrug use was associated with general psychomotor slowing on the Stroop Task. Results suggest that a subclinical form of antisociality may have a paradoxically facilitating effect on decision-making and cognitive impulsivity among SDIs. \n",1] ); //--> b and Eileen M. Martin a, c
aDepartment of Psychiatry, University of Illinois – Chicago, Chicago, IL 60622, USAbDepartment of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA cJesse Brown Veterans Administration Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60622, USA Available online 19 April 2007. Abstract The purpose of this investigation was to examine the influence of antisociality and extent of multidrug use on cognitive and motor impulsivity among substance-dependent individuals (SDIs) that used primarily cocaine and/or heroin. One hundred currently abstinent male SDIs participated in the study. Extent of multidrug use and degree of antisociality, assessed with the Socialization Scale of the California Psychological Inventory (So-CPI), were used to classify participants into one of four groups: high antisocial/low multidrug use, high antisocial/high multidrug use, low antisocial/low multidrug use, and low antisocial/high multidrug use. All subjects completed the Iowa Gambling Task to assess cognitive impulsivity and the Stroop Task to measure motor impulsivity. Contrary to expectations, antisociality was associated with more advantageous performance on the Iowa Gambling Task, independent of extent of multidrug use. In contrast, greater multidrug use was associated with general psychomotor slowing on the Stroop Task. Results suggest that a subclinical form of antisociality may have a paradoxically facilitating effect on decision-making and cognitive impulsivity among SDIs. \u003cstrong\>Keywords: \u003c/strong\>Drug \u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_hit1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003cspan\>addiction\u003c/span\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#hit2\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cimg height\u003d\"11\" alt\u003d\"next term\" src\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/scidirimg/sci_dir/nextterm.gif\" width\u003d\"7\" border\u003d\"0\"\>\u003c/a\>; Impulsivity; Antisocial; Polysubstance use; Multidrug use; Decision-making \u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\u003c/p\>\n\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/div\>\u003cbr\>\n\u003cdiv\>\n\u003cp\>\u003cspan\>Article Outline\u003c/span\> \n\u003cdl\>\n\u003cdt\>1. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#secx1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nIntroduction\u003c/a\> \n\u003cdt\>2. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#secx2\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nMethods\u003c/a\> \n\u003cdt\>3. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#secx3\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nResults\u003c/a\> \n\u003cdt\>4. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#secx4\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Keywords: Drug addiction ; Impulsivity; Antisocial; Polysubstance use; Multidrug use; Decision-making   Article Outline 1. Introduction 2. Methods 3. Results 4. \n\u003cdt\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#ack001\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nAcknowledgements\u003c/a\> \n\u003cdt\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bibl001\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nReferences\u003c/a\>\u003c/dt\>\u003c/dt\>\u003c/dt\>\u003c/dt\>\u003c/dt\>\u003c/dt\>\u003c/dl\>\u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/div\>\u003cbr\>\n\u003cdiv\>\n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_secx1\"\>\u003c/a\>\n\u003cp\>\u003cspan\>1. Introduction\u003c/span\> \n\u003cp\>Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, considered a core component in drug addiction (\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib5\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib5\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nGoldstein and Volkow, 2002\u003c/a\>). \u003ci\>Reward-discounting\u003c/i\> or \u003ci\>cognitive impulsivity\u003c/i\> refers to the preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards, whereas \u003ci\>rapid-response\u003c/i\> or \u003ci\>motor impulsivity\n\u003c/i\> is manifested by poor inhibitory control of pre-potent responses (\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib3\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib3\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Discussion Acknowledgements References   1. Introduction Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, considered a core component in drug addiction ( Goldstein and Volkow, 2002). Reward-discounting or cognitive impulsivity refers to the preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards, whereas rapid-response or motor impulsivity is manifested by poor inhibitory control of pre-potent responses ( ). Substance-dependent individuals (SDIs) are often impaired on tasks measuring cognitive (\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nBechara et al., 2001\u003c/a\>) or motor impulsivity (\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib14\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib14\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nVerdejo-Garcia and Perez-Garcia, 2007\u003c/a\>). However, not \u003ci\>all\u003c/i\> SDIs manifest such impairments, which suggests that some additional risk factors may increase their vulnerability for cognitive and motor impulsivity. The current study explored whether two potential risk factors, namely antisociality and extent of multidrug use, both commonly observed in SDIs (\n\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib2\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib2\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n[Craig, 2000]\u003c/a\> and \u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib8\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib8\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Dougherty et al., 2003). Substance-dependent individuals (SDIs) are often impaired on tasks measuring cognitive ( Bechara et al., 2001) or motor impulsivity ( Verdejo-Garcia and Perez-Garcia, 2007). However, not all SDIs manifest such impairments, which suggests that some additional risk factors may increase their vulnerability for cognitive and motor impulsivity. The current study explored whether two potential risk factors, namely antisociality and extent of multidrug use, both commonly observed in SDIs ( [Craig, 2000] and ) and previously related to poor impulse control (\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib11\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib11\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n[Mitchell et al., 2002]\u003c/a\> and \u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib12\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib12\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n[Moeller et al., 2002]\u003c/a\>), account for differences in cognitive and motor impulsivity among SDIs. We used the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) and the Stroop Task: two common laboratory paradigms to measure cognitive and motor impulsivity, respectively. We hypothesized that both of these risk factors would be associated with greater impulsivity in SDIs.\n\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_secx2\"\>\u003c/a\> \n\u003cp\>\u003cspan\>2. Methods\u003c/span\> \n\u003cp\>Participants were 100 currently abstinent, HIV seronegative male participants with history of substance dependence, enrolled in a larger study of neurocognition and HIV among SDIs at the University of Illinois, Chicago. Subjects testing positive on urine toxicology screening or breathalyzer testing for alcohol, or with any history of potentially confounding neurologic illness or injury, schizophrenia, or current alcohol abuse or dependence were excluded. \n\u003cp\>History of substance abuse and dependence was determined using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Substance Abuse Module (\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib4\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib4\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> [Leri et al., 2003]) and previously related to poor impulse control ( [Mitchell et al., 2002] and [Moeller et al., 2002]), account for differences in cognitive and motor impulsivity among SDIs. We used the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) and the Stroop Task: two common laboratory paradigms to measure cognitive and motor impulsivity, respectively. We hypothesized that both of these risk factors would be associated with greater impulsivity in SDIs. 2. Methods Participants were 100 currently abstinent, HIV seronegative male participants with history of substance dependence, enrolled in a larger study of neurocognition and HIV among SDIs at the University of Illinois, Chicago. Subjects testing positive on urine toxicology screening or breathalyzer testing for alcohol, or with any history of potentially confounding neurologic illness or injury, schizophrenia, or current alcohol abuse or dependence were excluded. History of substance abuse and dependence was determined using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Substance Abuse Module ( ). Antisociality was assessed by the Socialization Scale of the California Psychological Inventory (So-CPI; \u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib6\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib6\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nGough, 1987\u003c/a\>), a common measure of antisociality among non-incarcerated individuals. We used the North American Adult Reading Test (\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib7\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib7\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nGrober and Sliwinski, 1991\u003c/a\>) to estimate verbal IQ. \n\u003cp\>All participants had a positive history of cocaine dependence and 80% carried a diagnosis of past alcohol abuse or dependence. Subjects diagnosed additionally with opiate dependence (53% of the sample) were classified as "high multidrug use", while all others were assigned to the "low multidrug use" group. Participants were further appointed to a "high" or "low antisocial" group based on a median split (Md \u003d 27) of their So-CPI scores. With the exception of a positive hepatitis C serostatus [\n\u003ci\>χ\u003c/i\>\u003csup\>2\u003c/sup\> \u003d 4.02, \u003ci\>p\u003c/i\> \u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#tbl1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> First et al., 1996). Antisociality was assessed by the Socialization Scale of the California Psychological Inventory (So-CPI; Gough, 1987), a common measure of antisociality among non-incarcerated individuals. We used the North American Adult Reading Test ( Grober and Sliwinski, 1991) to estimate verbal IQ. All participants had a positive history of cocaine dependence and 80% carried a diagnosis of past alcohol abuse or dependence. Subjects diagnosed additionally with opiate dependence (53% of the sample) were classified as "high multidrug use", while all others were assigned to the "low multidrug use" group. Participants were further appointed to a "high" or "low antisocial" group based on a median split (Md = 27) of their So-CPI scores. With the exception of a positive hepatitis C serostatus [ χ2 = 4.02, p  ). \n\u003cblockquote\>\n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_tbl1\"\>\u003c/a\>Table 1. \n\u003cp\>Demographic and substance use characteristics \n\u003ctable cellspacing\u003d\"0\" cellpadding\u003d\"6\" rules\u003d\"groups\" border\u003d\"1\" frame\u003d\"hsides\"\>\n\u003ccolgroup span\u003d\"5\"\>\n\u003ccol\>\n\u003ccol\>\n\u003ccol\>\n\u003ccol\>\n\u003ccol\>\n\u003cthead\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003cth valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>\u003c/font\>\u003c/th\>\n\u003cth valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>High antisocial/Low multidrug use (\u003ci\>n\u003c/i\> \u003d 15)\u003c/font\>\u003c/th\>\n\u003cth valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>High antisocial/High multidrug use (\u003ci\>n\u003c/i\> \u003d 33)\u003c/font\>\u003c/th\>\n\u003cth valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>Low antisocial/Low multidrug use (\u003ci\>n\u003c/i\> \u003d 32)\u003c/font\>\u003c/th\>\n\u003cth valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>Low antisocial/High multidrug use (\u003ci\>n\u003c/i\> \u003d 20)\u003c/font\>\u003c/th\>\u003c/tr\>\u003c/thead\>\n\u003ctbody\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>Age\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>42.33 (8.75)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>42.78 (6.38)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>42.3 (5.86)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>45.33 (6.11)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\u003c/tr\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>Years of education\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>12.33 (2.44)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>12.33 (1.80)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>12.67 (1.53)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>12.19 (1.17)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\u003c/tr\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>IQ\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>98.83 (11.00)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>100.94 (9.29)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>104.17 (8.88)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>101.54 (6.95)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\u003c/tr\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>So-CPI\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>22.13 (2.85)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>21.31 (3.50 )\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>32.06 (3.73)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>30.81 (3.09)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\u003c/tr\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>",1] ); //--> Table 1). Table 1. Demographic and substance use characteristics   High antisocial/Low multidrug use (n = 15) High antisocial/High multidrug use (n = 33) Low antisocial/Low multidrug use (n = 32) Low antisocial/High multidrug use (n = 20) Age 42.33 (8.75) 42.78 (6.38) 42.3 (5.86) 45.33 (6.11) Years of education 12.33 (2.44) 12.33 (1.80) 12.67 (1.53) 12.19 (1.17) IQ 98.83 (11.00) 100.94 (9.29) 104.17 (8.88) 101.54 (6.95) So-CPI 22.13 (2.85) 21.31 (3.50 ) 32.06 (3.73) 30.81 (3.09) Y drug use\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>23.53 (9.27)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>21.91 (8.05)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>21.44 (7.79)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>25.43 (4.80)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\u003c/tr\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\" align\u003d\"left\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>D last use (median, IQR)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>80 (31, 304)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>82.5 (36.5, 287)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>115 (60.5, 195)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"top\"\>\u003cfont size\u003d\"-1\"\>90 (30, 240)\u003c/font\>\u003c/td\>\u003c/tr\>\u003c/tbody\>\u003c/colgroup\>\u003c/table\>\n\u003cp\>So-CPI – Socialization Scale of the California Psychological Inventory; Y drug use – years of drug use; D last use – number of days since last used drugs.\u003cbr\>\n\u003cp\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/blockquote\>\n\u003cp\>All subjects completed the computerized IGT and the Reaction Time (RT) Stroop Test (see \u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n[Bechara et al., 2001]\u003c/a\> and \u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib10\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib10\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n[Martin et al., 1992]\u003c/a\> for detailed descriptions). The IGT requires subjects to select a series of cards from one of four decks. Each card carries a monetary gain or loss of varying size. Patients with ventromedial prefrontal lesions and SDIs often perform the task poorly, by persistently choosing cards associated with large rewards but also with larger and more frequent losses. The computerized RT Stroop requires subjects to name the display color of a series of colored words under three conditions with varying demands on behavioral inhibition. The most taxing condition (\n",1] ); //--> Y drug use 23.53 (9.27) 21.91 (8.05) 21.44 (7.79) 25.43 (4.80) D last use (median, IQR) 80 (31, 304) 82.5 (36.5, 287) 115 (60.5, 195) 90 (30, 240) So-CPI – Socialization Scale of the California Psychological Inventory; Y drug use – years of drug use; D last use – number of days since last used drugs. All subjects completed the computerized IGT and the Reaction Time (RT) Stroop Test (see [Bechara et al., 2001] and [Martin et al., 1992] for detailed descriptions). The IGT requires subjects to select a series of cards from one of four decks. Each card carries a monetary gain or loss of varying size. Patients with ventromedial prefrontal lesions and SDIs often perform the task poorly, by persistently choosing cards associated with large rewards but also with larger and more frequent losses. The computerized RT Stroop requires subjects to name the display color of a series of colored words under three conditions with varying demands on behavioral inhibition. The most taxing condition ( \u003c/a\> \n\u003cp\>\u003cspan\>3. Results\u003c/span\> \n\u003cp\>IGT data were scored according to the procedure first reported by \u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nBechara et al. (2001)\u003c/a\>. Data were analyzed with a mixed-model ANOVA, with trial block as the within-subject factor, and Multidrug Use and Antisociality as the between-subjects factors. As expected, all groups improved their performance as the task progressed [\n\u003ci\>F\u003c/i\>(4,380) \u003d 10.93, \u003ci\>p\u003c/i\> F\u003c/i\>(1,95) \u003d 5.17, \u003ci\>p\u003c/i\> \nFig. 1\u003c/a\>). Additionally, IGT scores for subjects in the "low multidrug use" group showed a significant improvement in performance over the 100 trials, whereas the subjects in the "high multidrug use" group showed no evidence of improved performance as the task progressed, indicated by a significant interaction between Trial Block and Multidrug Use [\n\u003ci\>F\u003c/i\>(4,380) \u003d 2.77, \u003ci\>p\u003c/i\> ",1] ); //--> i.e. the "incongruent condition") requires subjects to name color-discordant words (e.g. "RED" presented in green) while suppressing the tendency to read the word. 3. Results IGT data were scored according to the procedure first reported by Bechara et al. (2001). Data were analyzed with a mixed-model ANOVA, with trial block as the within-subject factor, and Multidrug Use and Antisociality as the between-subjects factors. As expected, all groups improved their performance as the task progressed [ F(4,380) = 10.93, p F(1,95) = 5.17, p  Fig. 1). Additionally, IGT scores for subjects in the "low multidrug use" group showed a significant improvement in performance over the 100 trials, whereas the subjects in the "high multidrug use" group showed no evidence of improved performance as the task progressed, indicated by a significant interaction between Trial Block and Multidrug Use [ F(4,380) = 2.77, p  ). \n\u003cblockquote\>\n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_fig1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\n\u003ctable width\u003d\"100%\"\>\n\u003ctbody\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd width\u003d\"10%\"\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dMiamiCaptionURL&_method\u003dretrieve&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_image\u003dfig1&_ba\u003d1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_st\u003d4&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003df58966bd270689ddb1d878ae4da94e43\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cimg title\u003d\"Display Full Size version of this image (15K) - Opens new window\" height\u003d\"93\" alt\u003d\"\" hspace\u003d\"2\" src\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/cache/MiamiImageURL/B6VC9-4NHV4R5-1-3/0?wchp\u003ddGLbVtb-zSkzV\" width\u003d\"124\" align\u003d\"middle\" vspace\u003d\"2\" border\u003d\"1\"\>\n\u003c/a\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"bottom\"\>\u003ca title\u003d\"Display Full Size version of this image (15K) - Opens new window\" href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dMiamiCaptionURL&_method\u003dretrieve&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_image\u003dfig1&_ba\u003d1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_st\u003d4&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003df58966bd270689ddb1d878ae4da94e43\" alt\u003d\"Display Full Size version of this image (15K) - Opens new window\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cstrong\>Display Full Size version of this image\u003c/strong\>\u003c/a\> (15K)\u003c/td\>\u003c/tr\>\u003c/tbody\>\u003c/table\>\n\u003cp\>Fig. 1. Main effect of antisociality on Iowa Gambling Task. \n\u003cp\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/blockquote\>\n\u003cblockquote\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_fig2\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_2\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\n\u003ctable width\u003d\"100%\"\>\n\u003ctbody\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd width\u003d\"10%\"\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dMiamiCaptionURL&_method\u003dretrieve&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_image\u003dfig2&_ba\u003d2&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_st\u003d4&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d007874249f2698f49d00e24fffe0e561\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Fig. 2).     Fig. 1. Main effect of antisociality on Iowa Gambling Task.       Fig. 2. Interaction between extent of multidrug use and trial block on the Iowa Gambling Task. RT Stroop data was analyzed by 2 (Multidrug Use) × 2 (Antisociality) × 3 (Stroop Condition) mixed-model ANOVA. 1 All participants' reaction times increased with increasing demands on response inhibition [F(2,158) = 279.2; p F(1,79) = 4.58, p  ); however, this group difference was no longer apparent when hepatitis C serostatus was controlled. \n\u003cblockquote\>\n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_fig3\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_3\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\n\u003ctable width\u003d\"100%\"\>\n\u003ctbody\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd width\u003d\"10%\"\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dMiamiCaptionURL&_method\u003dretrieve&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_image\u003dfig3&_ba\u003d3&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_st\u003d4&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d5941c4dceb882023860f5191fc5ca46d\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cimg title\u003d\"Display Full Size version of this image (15K) - Opens new window\" height\u003d\"91\" alt\u003d\"\" hspace\u003d\"2\" src\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/cache/MiamiImageURL/B6VC9-4NHV4R5-1-7/0?wchp\u003ddGLbVtb-zSkzV\" width\u003d\"125\" align\u003d\"middle\" vspace\u003d\"2\" border\u003d\"1\"\>\n\u003c/a\>\u003c/td\>\n\u003ctd valign\u003d\"bottom\"\>\u003ca title\u003d\"Display Full Size version of this image (15K) - Opens new window\" href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dMiamiCaptionURL&_method\u003dretrieve&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_image\u003dfig3&_ba\u003d3&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_st\u003d4&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d5941c4dceb882023860f5191fc5ca46d\" alt\u003d\"Display Full Size version of this image (15K) - Opens new window\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cstrong\>Display Full Size version of this image\u003c/strong\>\u003c/a\> (15K)\u003c/td\>\u003c/tr\>\u003c/tbody\>\u003c/table\>\n\u003cp\>Fig. 3. Main effect of extent of multidrug use on the Stroop Color Word Task. \n\u003cp\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/blockquote\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_secx4\"\>\u003c/a\>\n\u003cp\>\u003cspan\>4. Discussion\u003c/span\> \n\u003cp\>To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate specifically the effects of antisociality and extent of multidrug use on indices of impulsivity among SDIs. The study revealed three important findings. First and foremost, contrary to predictions, we found that antisociality was associated with more advantageous decision-making performance on the IGT and thus with better cognitive impulse control, independent of extent of multidrug use. Second, there was indication of a significant improvement in decision-making performance across IGT trial blocks for the low multidrug use but not for the high multidrug use group, evidenced by a flatter learning curve in the high multidrug use group. Finally, greater extent of multidrug use was associated with general psychomotor slowing, but not with motor impulsivity per se on the Stroop task. \n",1] ); //--> Fig. 3); however, this group difference was no longer apparent when hepatitis C serostatus was controlled.     Fig. 3. Main effect of extent of multidrug use on the Stroop Color Word Task. 4. Discussion To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate specifically the effects of antisociality and extent of multidrug use on indices of impulsivity among SDIs. The study revealed three important findings. First and foremost, contrary to predictions, we found that antisociality was associated with more advantageous decision-making performance on the IGT and thus with better cognitive impulse control, independent of extent of multidrug use. Second, there was indication of a significant improvement in decision-making performance across IGT trial blocks for the low multidrug use but not for the high multidrug use group, evidenced by a flatter learning curve in the high multidrug use group. Finally, greater extent of multidrug use was associated with general psychomotor slowing, but not with motor impulsivity per se on the Stroop task. In light of our earlier finding that psychopathic heroin addicts evidence impaired performance on the IGT (\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib13\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib13\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nVassileva et al., 2007\u003c/a\>), current results suggest that impaired performance of antisocial individuals on the IGT may become evident only at the extreme end of the antisocial spectrum, when antisociality is a clinically diagnosable syndrome such as Antisocial Personality Disorder or Psychopathy, and not when it is manifested as a personality trait considered to be on a continuum with normality, such as degree of socialization as assessed by the So-CPI. One might thus speculate that a sub-clinical, "non-malignant" form of antisociality might exert a paradoxically facilitating effect on decision-making and cognitive impulsivity in SDIs. This will have to be investigated further by future studies. Also, the fact that antisociality had no effect on motor impulsivity indexed by the Stroop task, but in contrast had a facilitating effect on decision-making/cognitive impulsivity may be related to better impulse control in the antisocial group particularly when rewards are involved. \n\u003cp\>With regards to our second finding, the flatter learning curve of the high multidrug use SDIs suggests that they do not learn the task contingencies and show greater tendency to perseverate on making decisions that were initially rewarding, but ultimately disadvantageous. Relative to the high multidrug use SDIs, our low multidrug use group was guided initially to a greater degree by the higher magnitude of the immediate rewards. Yet, they learned to shift their strategy as soon as the first punishment trials were delivered. In contrast, the high multidrug use subjects continued to be guided by the prospect of immediate short-term gains, and never changed their selection strategy throughout the task. \n",1] ); //--> In light of our earlier finding that psychopathic heroin addicts evidence impaired performance on the IGT ( Vassileva et al., 2007), current results suggest that impaired performance of antisocial individuals on the IGT may become evident only at the extreme end of the antisocial spectrum, when antisociality is a clinically diagnosable syndrome such as Antisocial Personality Disorder or Psychopathy, and not when it is manifested as a personality trait considered to be on a continuum with normality, such as degree of socialization as assessed by the So-CPI. One might thus speculate that a sub-clinical, "non-malignant" form of antisociality might exert a paradoxically facilitating effect on decision-making and cognitive impulsivity in SDIs. This will have to be investigated further by future studies. Also, the fact that antisociality had no effect on motor impulsivity indexed by the Stroop task, but in contrast had a facilitating effect on decision-making/cognitive impulsivity may be related to better impulse control in the antisocial group particularly when rewards are involved. With regards to our second finding, the flatter learning curve of the high multidrug use SDIs suggests that they do not learn the task contingencies and show greater tendency to perseverate on making decisions that were initially rewarding, but ultimately disadvantageous. Relative to the high multidrug use SDIs, our low multidrug use group was guided initially to a greater degree by the higher magnitude of the immediate rewards. Yet, they learned to shift their strategy as soon as the first punishment trials were delivered. In contrast, the high multidrug use subjects continued to be guided by the prospect of immediate short-term gains, and never changed their selection strategy throughout the task. Finally, the significance of the overall slowing in the high multidrug use group on the Stroop Task remains unclear, because additional analyses revealed that differences in Stroop reaction times were found to be accounted for by hepatitis C serostatus. This is consistent with a recent report from our laboratory (\n\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bbib9\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bib9\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nMartin et al., 2004\u003c/a\>) indicating that a positive hepatitis C serostatus is associated with overall slower information processing on the Stroop task, and deserves further investigation. \u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\n\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/div\>\u003cbr\>\n\u003cdiv\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_ack001\"\>\u003c/a\>\n\u003cp\>\u003cspan\>Acknowledgements\u003c/span\> \n\u003cp\>\n\u003cp\>We thank Joanna Jacobus, Stephanie King, and Niles Rains for their assistance with data collection. This research was supported by NIDA grants R21-DA18086 (JV), R01-DA12828 (EMM) and F32-DA018522 (RG). \u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/div\>\n\u003cbr\>\n\u003cdiv\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bibl001\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bibl001\"\>\u003c/a\>\n\u003cp\>\u003cspan\>References\u003c/span\> \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nBechara et al., 2001\u003c/a\> A. Bechara, S. Dolan, N. Denburg, A. Hindes, S.W. Anderson and P.E. Nathan, Decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in alcohol and stimulant abusers, \n",1] ); //--> Finally, the significance of the overall slowing in the high multidrug use group on the Stroop Task remains unclear, because additional analyses revealed that differences in Stroop reaction times were found to be accounted for by hepatitis C serostatus. This is consistent with a recent report from our laboratory ( Martin et al., 2004) indicating that a positive hepatitis C serostatus is associated with overall slower information processing on the Stroop task, and deserves further investigation.   Acknowledgements We thank Joanna Jacobus, Stephanie King, and Niles Rains for their assistance with data collection. This research was supported by NIDA grants R21-DA18086 (JV), R01-DA12828 (EMM) and F32-DA018522 (RG).   References Bechara et al., 2001 A. Bechara, S. Dolan, N. Denburg, A. Hindes, S.W. Anderson and P.E. Nathan, Decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in alcohol and stimulant abusers, Neuropsychologia\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>39\u003c/strong\> (2001), pp. 376–389. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6T0D-427JW9G-6&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2001&_fmt\u003dsummary&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d4860&view\u003dc&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d44b293ade046350c750ee9fd0bfe5b2e&ref\u003dfull\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nSummaryPlus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6T0D-427JW9G-6&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2001&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d4860&view\u003dc&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dbf2b1f6fc8c419bc97adf94a83b37394&ref\u003dfull\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text + Links\u003c/b\>\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dMiamiImageURL&_imagekey\u003dB6T0D-427JW9G-6-6&_cdi\u003d4860&_user\u003d2231777&_check\u003dy&_orig\u003dsearch&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2001&view\u003dc&wchp\u003ddGLbVtb-zSkzV&md5\u003dfb15b87e9623f92cc363242c7a0fbd66&ie\u003d/sdarticle.pdf\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nPDF (205 K)\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0035148287%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D2b589e0702902244529718a35880ace2&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d5db5392f5f9b2c220e654f26439c9976\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0035148287%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D2b589e0702902244529718a35880ace2&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dfdff9b117fbd84c1fcfa4bf6d2569219\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Neuropsychologia 39 (2001), pp. 376–389. SummaryPlus | Full Text + Links | PDF (205 K) | View Record in Scopus | \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib2\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib2\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nCraig, 2000\u003c/a\> R.J. Craig, Prevalence of personality disorders among cocaine and heroin addicts, \u003ci\>Substance Abuse\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>21\u003c/strong\> (2000), pp. 87–94. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d3&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1007711112790&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d1ff5e61ce538d5744ac3e7d529db2a96\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text\u003c/b\> via CrossRef\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0034039237%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D0ad8b697a5f45bf2060abbb38960483f&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dda253fb2d50fc4580c2ac1b88ed5eb6e\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0034039237%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D0ad8b697a5f45bf2060abbb38960483f&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dc1a9f65bbc77a28b8ccf4ab0eedd1e9c\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nCited By in Scopus (12)\u003c/a\> \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib3\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib3\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Cited By in Scopus (204) Craig, 2000 R.J. Craig, Prevalence of personality disorders among cocaine and heroin addicts, Substance Abuse 21 (2000), pp. 87–94. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (12) D.M. Dougherty, J.M. Bjork, R.A. Harper, D.M. Marsh, F.G. Moeller and C.W. Mathias \u003ci\>et al.\u003c/i\>, Behavioral impulsivity paradigms: A comparison in hospitalized adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders, \n\u003ci\>Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>44\u003c/strong\> (2003), pp. 1145–1157. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d3&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2F1469-7610.00197&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003de8702b1f1a7ea9291bb17c196fe59de5\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text\u003c/b\> via CrossRef\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0344513301%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Dcef5db53775c6bd555e9b7468e289742&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d2b91d87e2288ac3ccb1040e2d6029c09\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0344513301%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Dcef5db53775c6bd555e9b7468e289742&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dea44cd6788067042e7e625a6e6e59555\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nCited By in Scopus (17)\u003c/a\> \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib4\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib4\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Dougherty et al., 2003 D.M. Dougherty, J.M. Bjork, R.A. Harper, D.M. Marsh, F.G. Moeller and C.W. Mathias et al., Behavioral impulsivity paradigms: A comparison in hospitalized adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44 (2003), pp. 1145–1157. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (17) M.B. First, R.L. Spitzer, M. Gibbon and J.B. Williams, Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV Axis I disorders, Biometrics Research, New York (1996). \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib5\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib5\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nGoldstein and Volkow, 2002\u003c/a\> R.Z. Goldstein and N.D. Volkow, Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex, \u003ci\>American Journal of Psychiatry\u003c/i\>\n \u003cstrong\>159\u003c/strong\> (2002), pp. 1642–1652. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d3&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.159.10.1642&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d6a14860ddb693a22cced4934fb22d6fa\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text\u003c/b\> via CrossRef\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0036787356%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Da98c76eb55db28f6073532e68891e4e6&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dd19f8de74b5cc25e4f398377c2f0e55f\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0036787356%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Da98c76eb55db28f6073532e68891e4e6&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d9a224d4d12788d2702b56c78755e96e4\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> First et al., 1996 M.B. First, R.L. Spitzer, M. Gibbon and J.B. Williams, Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV Axis I disorders, Biometrics Research, New York (1996). Goldstein and Volkow, 2002 R.Z. Goldstein and N.D. Volkow, Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex, American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (2002), pp. 1642–1652. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib6\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib6\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nGough, 1987\u003c/a\> H. Gough, California psychological inventory administrator's guide, Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA (1987). \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib7\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib7\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nGrober and Sliwinski, 1991\u003c/a\> E. Grober and M. Sliwinski, Development and validation of a model for estimating premorbid verbal intelligence in the elderly, \u003ci\>Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>\n13\u003c/strong\> (1991), pp. 933–949. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0026050589%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D8e8ee4c99a57171d47059b79a247c40a&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dd9449f340edff0bc7d23967a1c7f633a\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0026050589%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D8e8ee4c99a57171d47059b79a247c40a&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d863b4218a7d77e373e5e8b4cc260ae8c\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Cited By in Scopus (250) Gough, 1987 H. Gough, California psychological inventory administrator's guide, Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA (1987). Grober and Sliwinski, 1991 E. Grober and M. Sliwinski, Development and validation of a model for estimating premorbid verbal intelligence in the elderly, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 13 (1991), pp. 933–949. View Record in Scopus | \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib8\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib8\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nLeri et al., 2003\u003c/a\> F. Leri, J. Bruneau and J. Stewart, Understanding polydrug use: Review of heroin and cocaine co-use, \u003ci\>Addiction\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>98\u003c/strong\> (2003), pp. 7–22. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d3&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1046%2Fj.1360-0443.2003.00236.x&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d4d1f31db32bdccf730070c8818cb50df\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text\u003c/b\> via CrossRef\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0037221068%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D67251fdc34155d630c64345dbe96ce43&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d74c163fc7c0203e72ec088bdd4d836a5\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0037221068%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D67251fdc34155d630c64345dbe96ce43&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003ddb0bdcb6df055cdbba39f008a0b4a2c0\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nCited By in Scopus (64)\u003c/a\> \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib9\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib9\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Cited By in Scopus (153) Leri et al., 2003 F. Leri, J. Bruneau and J. Stewart, Understanding polydrug use: Review of heroin and cocaine co-use, Addiction 98 (2003), pp. 7–22. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (64) E.M. Martin, R.M. Novak, M. Fendrich, J. Vassileva, R. Gonzalez and S. Grbesic \u003ci\>et al.\u003c/i\>, Stroop performance in drug users classified by HIV and hepatitis C virus serostatus, \u003ci\>Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society\n\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>10\u003c/strong\> (2004), pp. 298–300. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d3&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2FS135561770410218X&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d4d5e8e57d34a941f777307862667fc06\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text\u003c/b\> via CrossRef\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-1842590560%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Dc972cae118fa53b7e49b2188e6c6399d&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003df5bec0529721779ffa8cdc2d468f2e49\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-1842590560%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Dc972cae118fa53b7e49b2188e6c6399d&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dfd0136a80df99af81bcc9713a58a5c28\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nCited By in Scopus (13)\u003c/a\> \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib10\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib10\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Martin et al., 2004 E.M. Martin, R.M. Novak, M. Fendrich, J. Vassileva, R. Gonzalez and S. Grbesic et al., Stroop performance in drug users classified by HIV and hepatitis C virus serostatus, Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 10 (2004), pp. 298–300. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (13) E.M. Martin, L.C. Robertson, H.E. Edelstein, W.J. Jagust, D.G. Sorensen and D. San Giovanni \u003ci\>et al.\u003c/i\>, Performance of patients with early HIV-1 infection on the Stroop Task, \u003ci\>Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology\n\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>14\u003c/strong\> (1992), pp. 857–858. \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib11\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib11\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nMitchell et al., 2002\u003c/a\> D. Mitchell, G. Colledge, E. Leonard and A. Blair, Risky decisions and response reversal: Is there evidence of orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in psychopathic individuals?, \u003ci\>Neuropsychologia\u003c/i\>\n \u003cstrong\>40\u003c/strong\> (2002), pp. 2013–2022. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6T0D-45V6NXN-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2002&_fmt\u003dsummary&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d4860&view\u003dc&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d24ed2c2c24a4982099c01b9be1f0d288&ref\u003dfull\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nSummaryPlus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6T0D-45V6NXN-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2002&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d4860&view\u003dc&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d73cd9127b146c93f236ae48bbd09c054&ref\u003dfull\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text + Links\u003c/b\>\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dMiamiImageURL&_imagekey\u003dB6T0D-45V6NXN-1-14&_cdi\u003d4860&_user\u003d2231777&_check\u003dy&_orig\u003dsearch&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2002&view\u003dc&wchp\u003ddGLbVtb-zSkzV&md5\u003db6be4794cd3b27074629c81760d87673&ie\u003d/sdarticle.pdf\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Martin et al., 1992 E.M. Martin, L.C. Robertson, H.E. Edelstein, W.J. Jagust, D.G. Sorensen and D. San Giovanni et al., Performance of patients with early HIV-1 infection on the Stroop Task, Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 14 (1992), pp. 857–858. Mitchell et al., 2002 D. Mitchell, G. Colledge, E. Leonard and A. Blair, Risky decisions and response reversal: Is there evidence of orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in psychopathic individuals?, Neuropsychologia 40 (2002), pp. 2013–2022. SummaryPlus | Full Text + Links | | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0036385775%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Dcad7867019f1f76c6c220bdcf2695fd7&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dc0ef17b0075e60b2eed896d0a1909d63\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0036385775%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Dcad7867019f1f76c6c220bdcf2695fd7&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d273d614da154bc8dd048102112f55544\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nCited By in Scopus (78)\u003c/a\> \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib12\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib12\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nMoeller et al., 2002\u003c/a\> G.F. Moeller, D.M. Dougherty, S.E. Barratt, V. Oderinde, C.W. Mathias and R.A. Harper \u003ci\>et al.\u003c/i\>, Increased impulsivity in cocaine dependent subjects independent of antisocial personality disorder and aggression, \n\u003ci\>Drug and Alcohol Dependence\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>68\u003c/strong\> (2002), pp. 105–111. \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib13\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib13\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> PDF (141 K) | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (78) Moeller et al., 2002 G.F. Moeller, D.M. Dougherty, S.E. Barratt, V. Oderinde, C.W. Mathias and R.A. Harper et al., Increased impulsivity in cocaine dependent subjects independent of antisocial personality disorder and aggression, Drug and Alcohol Dependence 68 (2002), pp. 105–111. J. Vassileva, P. Petkova, S. Georgiev, E.M. Martin, R. Tersiyski and M. Raycheva \u003ci\>et al.\u003c/i\>, Impaired decision-making in psychopathic heroin addicts, \u003ci\>Drug and Alcohol Dependence\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>\n86\u003c/strong\> (2007), pp. 287–289. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6T63-4KPP48G-5&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d01%2F12%2F2007&_fmt\u003dsummary&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5019&view\u003dc&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d204fe1cadb749a9d53151bb58b51f316&ref\u003dfull\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nSummaryPlus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6T63-4KPP48G-5&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d01%2F12%2F2007&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5019&view\u003dc&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003dc8adf2d1159adfa3e3fdcfca369d6c24&ref\u003dfull\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text + Links\u003c/b\>\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dMiamiImageURL&_imagekey\u003dB6T63-4KPP48G-5-1&_cdi\u003d5019&_user\u003d2231777&_check\u003dy&_orig\u003dsearch&_coverDate\u003d01%2F12%2F2007&view\u003dc&wchp\u003ddGLbVtb-zSkzV&md5\u003d563f94e3a69533bdb455d2382d2bfffb&ie\u003d/sdarticle.pdf\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nPDF (158 K)\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-33751408226%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Dc88523fb2ea3c93c60715cdbebc3f9d4&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d7a42b0ba0652865c8f80f6c35ced862b\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-33751408226%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3Dc88523fb2ea3c93c60715cdbebc3f9d4&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d14c497f1d582d70e4556f8fe18f4c909\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Vassileva et al., 2007 J. Vassileva, P. Petkova, S. Georgiev, E.M. Martin, R. Tersiyski and M. Raycheva et al., Impaired decision-making in psychopathic heroin addicts, Drug and Alcohol Dependence 86 (2007), pp. 287–289. SummaryPlus | Full Text + Links | PDF (158 K) | View Record in Scopus | \n\u003cp\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_bib14\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bbib14\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nVerdejo-Garcia and Perez-Garcia, 2007\u003c/a\> A. Verdejo-Garcia and M. Perez-Garcia, Profile of executive deficits in cocaine and heroin polysubstance users: Common and differential effects on separate executive components, \u003ci\>\nPsychopharmacology\u003c/i\> \u003cstrong\>190\u003c/strong\> (2007), pp. 517–530. \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d3&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs00213-006-0632-8&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003da349406f058d946083677eeec66fd1a9\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003cb\>Full Text\u003c/b\> via CrossRef\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d655&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-33846829704%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D90c01a8450fe882d4ebbd5df22bffbb2&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d4b7ccf4743688194aedcff8ae194d124\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\nView Record in Scopus\u003c/a\> | \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dRedirectURL&_method\u003doutwardLink&_partnerName\u003d656&_targetURL\u003dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fscopus%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-33846829704%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D90c01a8450fe882d4ebbd5df22bffbb2&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003d9e95b449ca5fcdc1c8a9097bc885c0e7\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Cited By in Scopus (1) Verdejo-Garcia and Perez-Garcia, 2007 A. Verdejo-Garcia and M. Perez-Garcia, Profile of executive deficits in cocaine and heroin polysubstance users: Common and differential effects on separate executive components, Psychopharmacology 190 (2007), pp. 517–530. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | \u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/p\>\u003c/div\>\u003cbr\>\n\u003cdiv\>\u003cbr\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_cor1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bcor1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003csup\>\u003cimg alt\u003d\"Corresponding Author Contact Information\" src\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/scidirimg/entities/REcor.gif\" border\u003d\"0\"\>\u003c/sup\>\u003c/a\>Corresponding author. Department of Psychiatry (MC 912), University of Illinois – Chicago, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612, USA. Tel.: +1 312 413 0149; fax: +1 312 413 8147. \n\u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\u003c/div\>\u003cbr\>\n\u003cdiv\>\u003cbr\>\u003ca name\u003d\"115bd020f8d9efdd_fn1\"\>\u003c/a\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dArticleURL&_udi\u003dB6VC9-4NHV4R5-1&_user\u003d2231777&_coverDate\u003d12%2F31%2F2007&_alid\u003d634704389&_rdoc\u003d1&_fmt\u003dfull&_orig\u003dsearch&_cdi\u003d5949&_sort\u003dd&_st\u003d4&_docanchor\u003d&_ct\u003d3105&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d#bfn1\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\n\u003csup\>1\u003c/sup\>\u003c/a\> Due to technical difficulties with the computer program, we had missing data from 18 subjects (valid \u003ci\>n\u003c/i\> \u003d 88). \u003c/div\>\u003cbr clear\u003d\"all\"\>\u003cbr\>\n\u003ctable cellspacing\u003d\"0\" cellpadding\u003d\"0\" width\u003d\"100%\" border\u003d\"0\"\>\n\u003ctbody\>\n\u003ctr\>\n\u003ctd\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03064603\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>\u003cstrong\>Addictive Behaviors\u003c/strong\>\u003c/a\> \u003cbr\>\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob\u003dPublicationURL&_tockey\u003d%23TOC%235949%232007%23999679987%23669755%23FLA%23&_cdi\u003d5949&_pubType\u003dJ&view\u003dc&_auth\u003dy&_acct\u003dC000056678&_version\u003d1&_urlVersion\u003d0&_userid\u003d2231777&md5\u003de881048963f75cee4ccbcbfd5854457f\" target\u003d\"_blank\" onclick\u003d\"return top.js.OpenExtLink(window,event,this)\"\>",1] ); //--> Cited By in Scopus (1)   Corresponding author. Department of Psychiatry (MC 912), University of Illinois – Chicago, 1601 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60612, USA. Tel.: +1 312 413 0149; fax: +1 312 413 8147.   1 Due to technical difficulties with the computer program, we had missing data from 18 subjects (valid n = 88).            

نوشته شده توسط مصطفی نجفی در 10:21 |  لینک ثابت   • 

doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.004      
Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

Short communication

Factor analysis of the Alcohol and Drug Confrontation Scale (ADCS)

Douglas L. Polcin ^{a, ,} , Gantt P. Galloway ^b, Alan Bostrom ^c and Thomas K. Greenfield ^a

^aAlcohol Research Group, Berkeley, CA, United States
^bCalifornia Pacific Medical Center Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, United States
^cUniversity of California, San Francisco, United States

Available online 11 January 2007.

Abstract

The Alcohol and Drug Confrontation Scale (ADCS) is a 72-item instrument that defines confrontation as an individual being told "bad things" might happen if they do not make changes to address alcohol or drug problems or maintain sobriety. Preliminary assessment of the ADCS using substance abusers entering SLH's revealed: (1) scale items were frequently endorsed; (2) confrontation was often experienced as accurate and helpful; and (3) confronters' statements were viewed supportive and accurate. This study reports the results of a factor analysis on a larger sample 179 participants using baseline and 6 month follow-up data. Results yielded a clear two factor solution: (1) Internal Support (alpha =  0.80) and (2) External Intensity (alpha = 0.63). The two factors accounted for 58% of the variance. The ADCS offers a fresh and broader view of confrontation that can be reliably measured.

Keywords: Confrontation; Factor analysis; Addiction treatment; Social support

Article Outline

1. The Alcohol and Drug Confrontation Scale (ADCS)

2. Methods

2.1. Procedures

2.2. Data analysis

3. Results

4. Discussion

Acknowledgements

References

The effect of confrontation in addiction treatment is one of the most debated topics among addiction professionals, despite the lack of a clear way to measure it ( Polcin, 2003). Historically, confrontation has been described as a general style of counseling where the therapist argues with the client in an attempt to convince them that they have a problem with alcohol or drugs ( Miller, Benefield, & Tonigan, 1993). These approaches have been shown to be counter-therapeutic.

On the other hand, some types of interpersonal pressure regarding substance use have been shown to have a beneficial impact. Suggestions to enter treatment from friends, family, or a variety of human services and criminal justice professionals are common precipitants of treatment entry ( e.g. [George and Tucker, 1996], [Polcin and Weisner, 1999] and [Weisner et al., 2002]).

The problem in this area of study is that various types of pressures that clients receive have not been well defined and studies use different definitions of pressure and confrontation. The Alcohol and Drug Confrontation Scale (ADCS) ( Polcin, Galloway, & Greenfield, 2006) offers a fresh view of confrontation specifically defined as the extent to which individuals are told that they face potential consequences (i.e. "bad things") if they do not make changes to address alcohol or drug problems or make changes to maintain sobriety.

The current state of research on pressure suffers from a number of other shortcomings. First, most studies do not assess the effects of pressure from multiple sources. They tend to pick one or two sources ( e.g. criminal justice system or family/friends). Second, pressure is often conceived as a dichotomous variable, being present or absent in any individual case. This approach neglects important factors such as frequency and quantity of pressure. Third, existing studies do not assess the individual's experience of the pressure they receive. To what extent does the client view the confrontation as helpful or accurate? To what extent does the client view the confronter as supportive in general and supportive of sobriety in particular? What attributions does the client make about the motivations of the confronter?

1. The Alcohol and Drug Confrontation Scale (ADCS)

The ADCS includes 64 items assessing confrontation that participants received from 8 different sources during the past month: spouse/significant other, family, friends, sober housing residents, healthcare professionals, mental health professionals, substance abuse professionals, and criminal justice professionals ( Polcin et al., 2006). Within each source of confrontation 5 domains assess different dimensions of confrontation received during the past month: (1) the number of different sources that include at least one person confronting the respondent, (2) the total number of people confronting the respondent across all 8 sources of confrontation, (3) the frequency of confrontation within each source rated on a 5-point Likert scale, (4) perceptions of relationships with confronters rated on three 5-point Likert scale items, and (5) perception of confrontation rated on three 5-point Likert scale items. For a more complete description of the instrument including the content or the items in each domain see Polcin et al. (2006).

The initial testing of the ADCS on a sample of 108 participants entering sober living houses (SLH's) in California indicated that confrontation was common and generally experienced as supportive ( Polcin et al., 2006). Additionally, more frequent confrontation from more individuals and more sources was associated with more favorable views about relationships with confronters (p < 0.001) and more favorable views about the confrontations received ( p < 0.001).

The next step in instrument development was to conduct a factor analysis of the ADCS. The principle aim of this study is to report the factor structure of the ADCS, which has been specifically designed to address the aforementioned limitations in the pressure literature.

2. Methods

One hundred and seventy-nine participants were recruited into a study of SLH's. As described elsewhere (i.e. Polcin, 2001, p. 301), "SLH's are alcohol and drug free residences for individuals attempting to establish of maintain sobriety. They offer no formal treatment services but do provide social support and an abstinent living environment." Residents are required to attend 12-step self-help meetings and take responsibility for their share of the rent and maintenance of the house. The data collection sites were 21 SLH's in Northern California overseen by two different agencies.

A majority of the 179 participants were men (83%) and white (65%). Most had never been married (51%) and DSM-IV criteria for dependence was most prevalent for alcohol (47%) followed by methamphetamine (45%) and cocaine (42%). The mean age was 37 and ranged from 18 to 71.

2.1. Procedures

Research assistants interviewed 179 participants during their first week of entering a sober living house. All participants signed informed consent documents prior to research interviews and were assured their responses were kept confidential. To strengthen confidentiality further, a Federal Certificate of Confidentiality was obtained. Of the 179 interviewed at baseline, 75 were interviewed a second time at 6 month follow up. Thus, a total of 254 interviews underlie this analysis. Observations where zero sources of confrontation were reported were not used in the analysis. Among the total of 254 interviews, 47 included reports of no confrontation. Thus, 207 interviews were the basis for the combined factor analysis.

Administration of the ADCS began by informing participants that they were going to be asked if people "have said that bad things might happen to you if you do not make changes to address a drug or alcohol problem or make changes to maintain sobriety." Examples of bad things were stated to be relapse, eviction, jail, loss of job, losing an important relationship, becoming homeless, health problems, or emotional problems. Participants were asked to report whether they had experienced such confrontations during the past month. The sequence of 8 questions was repeated for each of the 8 sources and is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Format of items within sources

1.) How many (source) said that bad things would happen to you if you did not make changes to address drug or alcohol problems or if you did not make changes to maintain your sobriety?

2. How often did your (source) say that bad things would happen to you if you did not make changes?

3.) Thinking about the (source) that said bad things would happen if you did not make changes, how supportive of your sobriety are they?

4.) Overall, how supportive (is that/are those) (source) of you?

5.) How much do you think your (source) were trying to help you when they said that bad things would happen to you if you did not make changes?

6.) When your (source) said that bad things could happen, how accurate do you believe the statements were?

7.) How emotional did your (source) seem when they said that bad things would happen if you did not make changes?

8.) Thinking about the things (source) said to you, how helpful to your recovery were the statements?

2.2. Data analysis

Because we had a limited number of individuals for factor analysis of a 64 item instrument, we opted to use procedures described by Greenfield and Attkisson (2004), which examined factor analysis of items within and across different contexts. In our analysis, we separately assessed the factor structure of the 8 items within each of the 8 sources and in a combined factor analysis we analyzed data from all sources together. Principal components methods were used with varimax rotation. SAS/STAT 9 was the statistical software used to conduct the analysis.

The sample size for the combined analysis across the 8 sources included 554 observations, which is beyond the minimum ratio of 5 observations per item suggested by Gorsuch (1983). Six of the 8 factor analyses within sources contained a sufficient number of observations (> 40). Health and mental health had lower N's (31 and 22 respectively), indicating the findings for these sources are potentially unstable. However, as reported in the Results section, we found remarkably consistent findings across sources.

The lack of independence of observations for some individuals interviewed at baseline and at 6 month follow up was not viewed as problematic because no inferential statistics were involved. We made the assumption that the correlations of individuals' responses at baseline and 6-months were the same as correlations between different individuals at baseline.

3. Results

Descriptive statistics including means and standard deviations for all 8 items across all sources of confrontation are presented in Table 2. As in our first analysis of the ADCQ ( Polcin et al., 2006), there was little variation of means across sources. Regardless of the source, perceptions of confronters and confrontational statements were consistently viewed as positive. Respondents also tended to indicate that they felt confronters were supportive and confrontations were accurate and helpful.

Table 2.

Means and standard deviations for items in the combined factor analysis (N = 207)

Item	Factor 1	Factor 2
1		0.90 (0.73)
2		3.01 (1.11)
3	4.44 (0.73)
4	4.31 (0.77)
5	4.24 (0.80)
6		4.31 (0.84)
7		3.39 (0.93)
8	4.10 (0.80)

Note: KMO test for sample adequacy = 0.75, Bartlett test for sphericity yielded chi square = 525.1, 28 df, p < 0.001. SPSS 12 statistical software.

Principal components analysis in all instances (both source specific and overall) yielded two factors based on the Kaiser criterion of eigenvalues >  1.0. The two retained factors included 4 items each and explained 58% of the variance in the combined analysis.

Factor 1 has been labeled "Internal Support" because all items deal with the internal perception of supportiveness/helpfulness of the confrontation. Internal Support for the combined analysis included items 3, 4, 5, and 8, with factor loads ranging from 0.63 (item 8) to 0.87 (item 4). In Table 3 X denotes a load greater than 0.50. We see that six sources have exactly the same pattern and two others add one more variable to this subset. This factor accounted for 40% of the variance.

Table 3.

Factor loadings for internal support (Factor 1)

Item	Spouse	Family	Friends	SLH peer	Hlth prof.	Mental health	Subst. treat.	Criminal justice	Combined
N:	53	148	100	62	31	22	84	45	554
1
2
3	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	0.85
4	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	0.87
5	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	0.73
6								X
7					X
8	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	0.63
Alpha	0.84	0.71	0.80	0.78	0.87	0.82	0.81	0.88	0.80

Note: X denotes a loading of 0.50 or higher.

The second factor is the complement of the first factor as would be expected with a varimax rotation. The factor loading pattern for the second factor across the eight individual analyses was again very consistent and is shown in Table 4. Factor 2 for the combined analysis included items 1, 2, 6, and 7, with factor loads ranging from 0.51 to 0.76. The items in Factor 2 address the quantity, frequency, accuracy and emotional tone of confrontation. We are labeling this factor, "External Intensity," because the items address amount or quality of the confrontation presented to the participant from outside sources. This factor accounted for 18% of the variance.

Table 4.

Factor loadings for external intensity factor (Factor 2)

Item	Spouse	Family	Friends	SLH peer	Hlth prof.	Mental health	Subst. treat.	Criminal justice	Combined
N:	53	148	100	62	31	22	84	45	554
1		X	X	X	X	X	X		0.70
2	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	0.76
3
4
5
6	X		X		X	X	X		0.51
7	X	X	X	X		X	X	X	0.61
8
Alpha	0.61	0.54	0.63	0.68	0.57	0.63	0.65	0.30	0.63

Note: X denotes a loading of 0.50 or higher.

Each of the combined 8-item factor based scales showed acceptable internal consistency: Cronbach's alpha = 0.80 for Internal Support and 0.63 for External Intensity. Internal consistency of scales within individual sources was more variable. While Internal Support ranged from 0.71 (Family) to 0.88 (Criminal Justice), External Intensity was lower, ranging from 0.30 (a 2 item Criminal Justice scale) to 0.68 for Criminal Justice. Those sources with alphas < 0.60 (Criminal Justice, Healthcare Professionals, and Family) suggest that their use independent of the overall scale may not be warranted. Alphas for each source can be found in Table 3 and Table 4. The two overall scales are highly correlated, 0.73 (p < 0.001) at baseline and 0.86 (p < 0.001) at 6-month follow up.

4. Discussion

In this sample of residents in SLH's, the ADCS appears to have a clear factor structure and the factor based scales have acceptable psychometric properties in terms of internal consistency. Item means on the 2 scales of the ADCS (External Intensity and Internal Support) indicate that the intensity and supportiveness of confrontations were experienced surprisingly consistent across different sources. In addition, factor loadings of items were high and consistent across sources. Although the two-factor solution was supported, the two factors were highly correlated. Thus, the two dimensions measure related constructs. In addition, mean values of the items indicate that the intensity and supportiveness of confrontation were experienced in a consistent manner across different sources. Findings indicate that confrontation for SLH residents, defined as an individual being told they face potential harm unless they take action to address substance use problems, is common and usually experienced as supportive.

Our findings may differ from previous investigations of confrontation (e.g. [Miller et al., 1993] and [Miller et al., 1995]) for a number of reasons. First our definition of confrontation is substantially different. Rather than a general style of argumentative counseling focused on breaking down denial, our definition focuses on feedback about specific types of harm that those being confronted might suffer. Thus, the experience of being confronted switches from defending oneself from accusations to examining statements of concern. Another major difference with previous investigations of confrontation is the assessment of multiple domains of confrontation. The multifaceted nature of the ADCS allows for measurement of the respondents' experiences of the confrontational interactions and views about their perceptions of confronters. Finally, our study examined confrontation from multiple sources, not simply from substance abuse counselors. Here, experiences of confrontation from different sources appeared similar, but this might not always be so. For example, they might differ by population characteristics, treatment setting, or time when the confrontation is received.

Developing measures of construct and predictive validity as well as test–retest reliability will be the next steps in development of the ADCS. A limitation of our study that must be addressed in future research is the lack of information about longitudinal changes of confrontation over time. It would be particularly useful to track outcome correlates with confrontation, such as motivation, consumption of substances, and problem severity.

We hypothesize that confrontation may have a beneficial impact because it frequently provides realistic feedback about potential harm associated with addiction. Hence, it might be experienced as a form of social support rather than criticism. Results suggest that addiction treatment providers, friends, family, and professionals encountering substance abusers in other institutions should look for opportunities to provide supportive confrontation focused on potential harm clients might suffer from substance use.

Acknowledgment

Supported by grant AA014030-04.

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